On 5 September 1494, the Battle of Rapallo unfolded near the Ligurian coast as part of the early Italian Wars. The clash, though small in scale, was a decisive encounter between Swiss mercenaries in French service, their Genoese-Milanese allies, and Neapolitan forces led by Giulio Orsini. It demonstrated the brutal efficiency of the Swiss infantry and highlighted the growing importance of artillery in Renaissance warfare.

In the autumn of 1494, King Charles VIII of France launched his campaign to claim the Kingdom of Naples, igniting the Italian Wars. As part of their strategy, the French sought to secure Genoa, a key maritime ally. In early September, Neapolitan forces, numbering 4,000 men under Giulio Orsini, Obietto Fieschi, and Fregosino Campofregoso, occupied the town of Rapallo, intending to foment rebellion against French-backed Genoese rule. However, the Neapolitan fleet, which provided critical support, was forced to withdraw due to bad weather, leaving the defenders isolated.

On 5 September, Louis d'Orleans, cousin of Charles VIII, landed at Rapallo with an initial force of 1,000 Swiss mercenaries, renowned for their skill in pike warfare. This force was soon reinforced by an additional 2,000 Swiss soldiers arriving overland, accompanied by Genoese and Milanese infantry. The Neapolitans, despite their defensive position, faced a determined French-led attack.

The battle began with skirmishes between Swiss mercenaries and Neapolitan forces, but the rugged terrain around Rapallo made it difficult for the Swiss to deploy their fearsome pike squares effectively. The bulk of the fighting, therefore, fell to the Genoese-Milanese infantry. As the battle intensified, the French fleet offshore opened fire with concentrated artillery, targeting Neapolitan positions. The sustained bombardment broke the Neapolitan lines, forcing them into a disorderly retreat.

The Swiss mercenaries, famed for their discipline but also their brutality, pursued the fleeing Neapolitans. Many who tried to surrender were cut down, and the Swiss slaughtered wounded enemy soldiers. In the chaos, Giulio Orsini and Fregosino Campofregoso were captured.

With the battle won, the Swiss turned their fury on the town of Rapallo, looting and sacking it. The destruction underscored the harsh realities of Renaissance warfare and the ruthlessness of mercenary forces. Despite its relatively small scale, the French victory at Rapallo was strategically significant. It thwarted the Neapolitan attempt to destabilize Genoa, strengthening French influence in the region as Charles VIII pressed his campaign southward toward Naples.

The Battle of Rapallo demonstrated the increasing reliance on professional armies, the effectiveness of artillery in disrupting entrenched forces, and the devastating consequences of unchecked mercenary violence. It set the stage for the larger conflicts of the Italian Wars, where such dynamics would shape the fate of the Italian peninsula.

In the summer of 1494, King Charles VIII of France launched his audacious campaign to conquer the Kingdom of Naples, with a formidable army advancing through the Italian Peninsula. His progress was facilitated by alliances, including one with Ludovico Sforza (known as "il Moro"), the de facto ruler of the Duchy of Milan. Among those caught in the political crossfire was Caterina Sforza, regent of Imola and Forlì, who reluctantly became entangled in the conflict. The Siege of Mordano, which took place from 19 to 21 October 1494, was a key episode in this campaign, demonstrating the ferocity of Renaissance warfare and the pisions within allied forces.

By June 1494, the French army, equipped with modern artillery and bolstered by Swiss mercenaries, was ready to march southward toward Naples. However, tensions between Milan and Naples predated Charles’s expedition. Ludovico il Moro had usurped control of the Duchy of Milan, sidelining his young nephew Gian Galeazzo Sforza, which angered Naples. When King Ferrante of Naples died in 1494, his son, Alfonso II, ascended the throne and declared war on Milan. Alfonso was supported by the Papal States and the Republic of Florence.

Caterina Sforza, ruling on behalf of her son Ottaviano Riario, initially remained neutral despite familial ties to both Milan and Naples. However, by late summer, she reluctantly joined the anti-French League, receiving 16,000 gold ducats in return for her support. As tensions escalated, Caterina fortified her strongholds, including Mordano, to prepare for the inevitable clash.

By October 1494, the Neapolitan army, led by Ferrandino of Aragon, Duke of Calabria, advanced into Caterina's territory, engaging in skirmishes with the Franco-Milanese forces under commanders like Aubigny and Gian Francesco Sanseverino (Fracasso). Mordano, a strategically important but modestly defended village, became the focus of the conflict. Its garrison, commanded by Marino Mercatelli, was determined to resist.

On 20 October, the Franco-Milanese army surrounded Mordano. The French, angered by prior skirmishes, sought to take the fortress at all costs. Fracasso, recognizing the brutality of the French troops, attempted to negotiate the town’s peaceful surrender, but Mercatelli, supported by Monsignor Gianfrancesco Borelli and Count Calderini, refused. Mordano's defenders vowed to fight to the death.

French artillery opened fire on the fortress, devastating the walls and towers. As night fell on 21 October, the French launched a full assault, using axes to destroy the gates and storming the town from multiple fronts. The defenders, overwhelmed and exhausted, surrendered shortly before midnight.

The aftermath of the siege was catastrophic for Mordano. French soldiers, enraged by the resistance, began looting and destroying the town. They slaughtered civilians, burned buildings, and committed widespread atrocities. The drawbridge, crowded with French troops preparing to sack the fortress, collapsed, killing many who drowned in the moat below. Despite this chaos, the French pressed on, targeting the village for further destruction.

The Milanese contingent, under Fracasso, intervened to prevent a total massacre. Milanese soldiers saved many civilians, particularly women who had taken refuge in churches, and preserved sacred objects. This restraint enraged the French troops, who came close to attacking their allies in retaliation. To placate the French, the Milanese allowed them to execute Johannes, a German artilleryman who had killed a French nobleman during the siege.

Among the defenders, Mercatelli and Borelli were taken prisoner, later ransomed by Caterina Sforza. Count Calderini, disguising himself as a French soldier, managed to escape and warned Caterina of the advancing French army. Mordano’s destruction was followed by further devastation in the surrounding areas, as the French moved toward Forlì.

The fall of Mordano deeply angered Caterina Sforza. She blamed both Ferrandino for failing to come to her aid and Gian Francesco Sanseverino for his role in the betrayal. Seeking to protect her remaining territory, she began covertly negotiating with the Franco-Milanese forces to secure her position, a decision that strained her already fragile alliance with Naples. Ferrandino, though saddened by Mordano’s fate, lacked the resources to directly challenge the Franco-Milanese army and retreated toward Faenza.

The Siege of Mordano exemplified the brutality of the Italian Wars, with civilians bearing the brunt of the violence. The French demonstrated the destructive power of their artillery and their willingness to use terror as a tool of war. However, the Milanese efforts to shield civilians highlighted pisions within the Franco-Milanese alliance.

For Caterina Sforza, the loss of Mordano was both a personal and political blow, forcing her to navigate the dangerous politics of the Italian Wars carefully. For the French, the siege further cemented their reputation as a dominant, if ruthless, military force as they continued their march toward Naples.

In late October 1494, King Charles VIII of France’s campaign to conquer Naples reached Fivizzano, a fortified Florentine town in Tuscany. The Siege of Fivizzano, lasting from 26 to 29 October, marked another brutal episode in the early stages of the Italian Wars, showcasing the devastating modern warfare that the French army brought to Italy.

Charles VIII's campaign through Italy, launched earlier in the year, was characterized by a combination of military innovation and relentless speed. His forces, equipped with advanced artillery, overran cities with a ferocity that shocked the Italian states, accustomed to wars that were often more ceremonial than destructive. Fivizzano, a strategically located town on the route to Naples, became a target as the French marched south.

At the time, Fivizzano was under Florentine control but defended by foreign mercenaries and local forces. The town’s defenses were bolstered by the presence of Gabriello Malaspina, the Marquis of Fosdinovo, who had been entrusted with its protection. Despite his efforts, Fivizzano would become a victim of the brutal tactics employed by the French.

The French army reached Fivizzano on 26 October 1494. Charles VIII’s forces quickly surrounded the town, deploying their powerful artillery. Unlike many Italian fortresses that relied on traditional defenses, Fivizzano was no match for the French cannons, which could breach walls with unprecedented efficiency.

After several days of bombardment, the French breached the defenses and stormed the town. The foreign mercenaries defending Fivizzano were slaughtered, and the inhabitants fared little better. Reports describe widespread killing and destruction, with many civilians falling victim to the violence. The town was thoroughly sacked, leaving it in ruins.

The fall of Fivizzano had a profound psychological impact on Italy. Contemporary accounts highlight the shock and terror felt by Italian observers, who were unprepared for the ferocity and bloodshed the French brought to their campaigns. Wars in Italy had often been fought with an air of theatricality, focusing on displays of power and limited casualties among civilians. The siege of Fivizzano shattered this norm, introducing the Italian peninsula to the harsher realities of Renaissance warfare.

Italian chronicler Francesco Guicciardini captured the fear that swept across the region, describing the French tactics as "something new and very frightening for Italy." The sacking of Fivizzano was a stark warning to other towns and cities along Charles VIII’s path, many of which chose to surrender without resistance to avoid similar devastation.

For Charles VIII, the victory at Fivizzano demonstrated the effectiveness of his modernized army and its ability to instill fear. The siege reinforced his reputation as an unstoppable force as he continued his march toward Naples. However, the brutality also sowed the seeds of opposition among the Italian states, who would later form the League of Venice to resist French aggression.

In 1495, during the Italian War of 1494–1495, King Charles VIII of France led an invasion into Italy aiming to claim the Kingdom of Naples. As part of this campaign, the French forces targeted the fortified town of Monte San Giovanni Campano, a strategic border fortification of Naples renowned for its formidable medieval castle. The castle, constructed in the 11th century, was considered impregnable, having withstood sieges lasting up to seven years.

However, the advent of gunpowder artillery changed the dynamics of siege warfare. The French army, equipped with portable field artillery, bombarded the castle for eight hours, breaching its thick walls—a feat unprecedented at the time. Following the breach, French troops entered the town and massacred approximately 700 inhabitants who were unable to escape.

The fall of Monte San Giovanni Campano demonstrated the devastating effectiveness of gunpowder artillery against traditional fortifications, signaling a shift in military tactics and the decline of medieval castle defenses. The destruction of the castle and the slaughter of its inhabitants also served as a grim warning to other Neapolitan territories, contributing to the rapid French advance through the region.

The Battle of Rapallo occurred on 2 May 1495, during the First Italian War, involving a naval confrontation between the Republic of Genoa and France. The French fleet, commanded by Louis de Miolans, comprised seven galleys, two galleons, and two fuste, while the Genoese squadron, led by Francesco Spinola, consisted of eight galleys, a carrack, and two xebecs, carrying approximately six hundred infantrymen. The battle commenced at dawn when the Genoese launched a surprise attack on the French fleet, which was moored in Rapallo, a location that had housed a French garrison since the previous year. At the time of the assault, only two of the French galleys were fully manned, as the remainder had sent part of their crews to reinforce the land garrison, misled by false rumors that the main threat would come from land forces.

Taking advantage of the element of surprise, the Genoese successfully captured the entire French fleet. Following this naval victory, they landed troops under the command of Gian Ludovico Fieschi and Giovanni Adorno, who, with the support of a local uprising, recaptured Rapallo and compelled the French garrison to surrender. The defeat of the French fleet had significant repercussions, leading to the capture of a convoy of twelve unescorted French vessels shortly thereafter. These ships were transporting war booty and prisoners taken during Charles VIII’s campaign in the Kingdom of Naples, including three hundred women abducted in Campania. The Genoese seized the booty, which was later partially allocated to fund the construction of the Basilica della Santissima Annunziata del Vastato, while the bronze doors of Castel Nuovo were returned to the Neapolitans, bearing marks of battle damage.

The loss of the French fleet's logistical support in the Tyrrhenian Sea significantly influenced Charles VIII's strategic decisions, ultimately accelerating his withdrawal from Naples and return to France. The battle underscored the shifting dynamics of power in the region during the Italian Wars, highlighting the effectiveness of surprise tactics and local support in naval engagements.

In 1494, King Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, aiming to assert his Angevin claim to the Kingdom of Naples. His campaign, marked by swift advances and the effective use of modern artillery, overran the disunited Italian states. By February 1495, Charles occupied Naples, forcing King Ferdinand II of Naples to flee to Sicily, where he sought aid from his Spanish cousin, Ferdinand II of Aragon.

The French occupation of Naples and Charles' march back north toward France, leaving garrisons to hold southern Italy, prompted the formation of the League of Venice, a coalition of Italian states and Spain, to drive the French out. In May 1495, the Spanish general Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, an experienced soldier chosen by Queen Isabella of Castile, arrived in Calabria to assist Ferdinand II in reclaiming his kingdom. His forces included 600 Spanish cavalry and 1,500 infantry, along with Neapolitan troops and local militia volunteers.

By June 1495, Ferdinand II and Fernandez de Cordoba advanced into Calabria, supported by Venetian naval raids along the coast. The allied forces initially achieved small successes, destroying a French detachment and retaking towns like Reggio and Seminara. However, the French garrison in the region, commanded by Bernard Stewart, Lord of Aubigny, quickly mobilized. Though ill with malaria, d'Aubigny consolidated his forces, calling reinforcements from scattered garrisons and Swiss mercenary pike battalions under Précy, creating a formidable army.

Ferdinand II, eager to confront the French, decided to face d'Aubigny near Seminara without fully scouting the enemy's strength. Fernandez de Cordoba advised caution, but the decision to engage had already been made.

The allied forces deployed near a stream east of Seminara, with Neapolitan infantry on the left and cavalry on the right. The French force, numbering around 2,000 Swiss pikemen, 400 heavily armored gendarmes, and supporting infantry, advanced directly. The Swiss mercenaries, renowned for their discipline and devastating pike formations, took the lead, supported by French cavalry.

Initially, the allied forces held their ground, with Spanish jinetes (light cavalry) harassing the French gendarmes using hit-and-run tactics reminiscent of Spain's wars against the Moors. However, the Neapolitan militia, unaccustomed to the professional discipline of their adversaries, panicked and fled when the Swiss pikemen advanced. Their retreat exposed the allied left flank, leaving the Spanish infantry vulnerable.

The Swiss mercenaries overran the Spanish rodeleros (sword-and-shield infantry), while the French gendarmes decisively defeated the allied cavalry. Ferdinand II, conspicuous in his regal attire, was unhorsed and narrowly escaped capture, thanks to the self-sacrifice of a nobleman who gave him his horse and delayed the French pursuit. Meanwhile, Fernandez de Cordoba led a desperate rearguard action, allowing the remnants of the allied army to retreat. By the end of the day, the French were victorious, and Fernandez de Cordoba fled to Messina to regroup.

The French victory at Seminara, while tactically impressive, did little to change their precarious position in southern Italy. The French garrison remained isolated, and Ferdinand II quickly retook Naples through a combination of popular support, naval aid, and ruse. Fernandez de Cordoba, avoiding further pitched battles, resorted to guerrilla tactics, systematically recapturing territory in Calabria while avoiding direct confrontations with Swiss pike formations or French cavalry.

By 1496, the French garrison in southern Italy was weakened by lack of supplies and mutinies among unpaid mercenaries. The remaining forces were trapped at Atella and surrendered to the combined Spanish and Neapolitan army. Charles VIII's ambitions in Italy were effectively ended, though his campaign set the stage for decades of conflict known as the Italian Wars.

While Seminara was a defeat for the Spanish, its lessons profoundly influenced military doctrine. The failure of Spanish troops, particularly the rodeleros, against Swiss pikemen and French gendarmes convinced Fernandez de Cordoba of the need to modernize the Spanish army. He began incorporating firearms into pike and shot formations, creating the tercios, a combined-arms system that would dominate European battlefields for over a century.

Fernandez de Cordoba's reforms, combined with his later victories, earned him the title El Gran Capitan (“The Great Captain”) and solidified his reputation as one of the greatest generals of the Italian Wars. The Battle of Seminara, though a French triumph, ultimately catalyzed Spain's rise as a dominant military power in Renaissance Europe.

After the defeat at the Battle of Seminara on 28 June 1495, King Charles VIII of France, already marching north from Naples, continued his retreat to escape the growing threat posed by the League of Venice. Despite the French victory at Seminara, the League's determination to expel Charles and his forces from Italy intensified. With Naples retaken by Ferdinand II, Charles sought to regroup in northern Italy and rejoin his ally, the Duke of Orléans, in Piedmont. His path, however, was blocked by the League's main army near the Taro River, where the Battle of Fornovo would unfold on 6 July 1495.

The League, composed of Venetian, Milanese, and other Italian forces, had assembled under Francesco Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, and outnumbered Charles's retreating army by nearly two to one. The League aimed to destroy the French army entirely, and its troops, bolstered by Stradioti light cavalry from Albania, were well-positioned to achieve this goal. Charles's forces, meanwhile, consisted of 10,000 men, including his renowned gendarmes, Swiss mercenaries, and a formidable artillery train, though they were burdened by the spoils of the Neapolitan campaign. As Charles approached Fornovo, the League blocked his path, deploying its 20,000 men strategically along the Taro River.

The battle began with Charles's artillery opening fire on the League's forces. Though the cannons had limited effect, they unnerved the League's troops, as the psychological impact of the French guns remained significant. Charles's cavalry, led by Marshal Gie, launched a powerful charge that scattered the League's initial lines, creating chaos among their forces. The disciplined Swiss mercenaries in the French ranks also proved effective in holding off counterattacks from the League's infantry and cavalry.

Francesco Gonzaga's plan relied on outflanking the French and targeting their baggage train, which contained much of the wealth Charles had taken from Naples. Stradioti cavalry managed to attack and plunder portions of the train, but this distracted key elements of the League's army, weakening their ability to deliver a coordinated assault. The French capitalized on this disorder, breaking through the League's lines and escaping encirclement. While the League claimed victory for recovering some of the French loot, Charles's army successfully continued its retreat northward to Asti.

The aftermath of Fornovo underscored the broader failure of Charles's Italian campaign. Although he survived the retreat and preserved his army, all of his conquests in southern Italy were lost. Naples had already fallen to Ferdinand II, whose return was facilitated by support from the Spanish fleet and widespread popular rebellion against the French occupiers. Charles's ambitions of establishing a base for a crusade against the Ottomans were dashed, and the resources expended on the campaign left France deeply in debt.

For the Italians, the battle demonstrated the weaknesses of their mercenary-dominated armies, which proved unable to decisively defeat Charles despite their numerical superiority. Francesco Gonzaga's confession to his wife that the French might have destroyed the League's forces if they had chosen to turn and fight revealed the fragility of the coalition's victory. The campaign as a whole exposed Italy's vulnerabilities, with its wealth and disunity making it an irresistible target for foreign powers. Charles's invasion set a precedent for further incursions, turning the peninsula into a battleground for European powers over the following decades.

Fornovo, much like Seminara, signified a shift in the nature of warfare during the Italian Wars. The effectiveness of artillery and disciplined infantry demonstrated the need for innovation in military strategy, while the inability of the League to fully eliminate Charles's army highlighted the limitations of traditional Italian military practices. For Charles, his retreat from Fornovo marked the end of his dream of Italian conquest, but for Italy, it was only the beginning of a long period of foreign domination and conflict.

After the Battle of Fornovo on 6 July 1495, the French forces that Charles VIII had left in southern Italy began to face mounting pressure from the combined Neapolitan-Aragonese forces under Ferdinand II of Naples. Among the key French-held positions in Naples was the Castel Nuovo, or Maschio Angioino, a massive medieval fortress overlooking the Bay of Naples. From 6 July to 8 December 1495, this stronghold became the focal point of a protracted siege, with the French viceroy Gilbert, Count of Montpensier, making a determined stand against the forces of the League of Venice.

Charles VIII had left Montpensier and a garrison in Naples to consolidate his conquest while he marched northward. However, the return of Ferdinand II from exile, supported by the Aragonese fleet and Spanish reinforcements under Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, quickly turned the tide against the French occupiers. By July, Ferdinand had re-entered Naples, where he was welcomed by a population eager to overthrow the French, whose brief rule had become unpopular due to heavy taxation and mistreatment of the citizenry. The recapture of the city forced Montpensier and the remnants of the French army to retreat to the Castel Nuovo, one of the most formidable fortresses in the region.

The Siege of the Castel Nuovo began shortly after the city's fall. Ferdinand and his allies encircled the fortress, cutting off supplies and launching repeated assaults. Montpensier, however, resisted fiercely, relying on the castle's robust defenses and the morale of his remaining troops. The French forces, including Swiss mercenaries, managed to repel several attempts to breach the walls. The garrison also received some resupply and support by sea, as the French navy attempted to maintain a tenuous connection with the beleaguered stronghold.

The siege dragged on for months, as Ferdinand II focused on consolidating control over the rest of southern Italy. Fernandez de Cordoba employed his growing reputation for tactical innovation, using Spanish infantry and artillery to tighten the blockade. Meanwhile, disease and hunger began to take a toll on the French defenders, weakening their ability to sustain their resistance.

By December 1495, the situation inside the Castel Nuovo had become untenable. With no hope of relief from Charles VIII, who had retreated to France after his setbacks in northern Italy, Montpensier was forced to negotiate terms of surrender. On 8 December, the French garrison capitulated to Ferdinand II, marking a significant victory for the League of Venice. Montpensier and the surviving French troops were allowed to withdraw under honorable terms, though they left behind their heavy artillery and supplies.

The fall of the Castel Nuovo cemented the restoration of Ferdinand II's rule in Naples and marked the effective end of French ambitions in southern Italy. Charles VIII's Italian campaign, while initially spectacular, ultimately collapsed under the combined resistance of the League of Venice and widespread local opposition. For the French, the siege highlighted the vulnerability of overextended supply lines and the challenges of holding territory in the face of unified opposition.

The victory at Naples allowed Ferdinand and his Aragonese allies to consolidate their hold on the region, while Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba continued to refine the tactics that would later make him one of the most celebrated commanders of the Italian Wars. The siege also reinforced the lesson, demonstrated repeatedly during the Italian Wars, that fortresses could serve as critical focal points in the struggle for control over contested territories. For Italy, the siege of the Castel Nuovo represented another chapter in the ongoing struggle between foreign powers for dominance over the fragmented peninsula.

The Siege of Novara unfolded during the summer and autumn of 1495, as part of the ongoing Italian War of 1494-1495. Following King Charles VIII's retreat from Naples and his narrow escape at the Battle of Fornovo, his cousin, Louis d'Orleans, opened a second front by advancing into the Duchy of Milan, a former French ally that had joined the League of Venice. Louis seized the city of Novara on 11 June 1495, intending to press his own claim to the Milanese duchy. This move triggered a determined response from the Milanese and their allies, culminating in a three-month siege that left the French forces inside the city decimated by starvation and disease.

The campaign had its roots in Charles VIII's initial alliance with Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, during the early phase of the French invasion in 1494. However, Charles's harsh policies in Italy, including widespread destruction and punitive measures, alienated Ludovico and many Italian states, leading to the formation of the League of Venice to drive the French out. The defection of Milan provided Louis d'Orleans an opportunity to assert his claim to the duchy, which he considered his right as a descendant of Valentina Visconti, a Milanese princess.

Louis's occupation of Novara and his subsequent advance toward Vigevano alarmed Ludovico, who briefly contemplated fleeing Milan altogether. However, his wife, Beatrice d'Este, rallied the Milanese court and took charge of organizing the duchy's defenses. With Milan in crisis and its finances depleted, Beatrice's leadership proved critical in restoring morale and coordinating the military response.

The Milanese, supported by Venetian and League troops, eventually halted Louis's advance and forced him to retreat to Novara, where he fortified his position. By 19 July, Francesco II Gonzaga, the captain-general of the League forces, arrived to begin the siege. The besieging army surrounded the city and cut off its water supply by perting a nearby river. To avoid destroying the city outright, Ludovico refrained from using heavy artillery, relying instead on starvation tactics to weaken the French garrison.

Conditions inside Novara deteriorated rapidly. The city's defenders, poorly provisioned and demoralized, suffered from severe famine and outbreaks of disease. Louis expelled civilians from the city to conserve resources, leaving many to perish outside the walls or fall prey to the Stradioti, Venetian light cavalry known for their ruthlessness. Rumors spread within the city that King Charles VIII had been defeated or abandoned the French troops in Novara, further eroding morale.

The dire situation eventually forced Louis d'Orleans to seek a truce. On 24 September 1495, after months of suffering and the loss of an estimated 2,000 soldiers to hunger and illness, Louis surrendered Novara and withdrew his forces. The French troops who survived the siege were in such poor condition that even their retreat to safety left many dead along the roads. The League forces retook the city, securing a critical victory for Ludovico and the League of Venice.

The Peace of Vercelli, signed on 9 October 1495 between Charles VIII and Ludovico Sforza, formally ended hostilities between France and Milan. Charles abandoned his ambitions in Milan, while Ludovico restored relations with the French, allowing them limited use of Genoese ports to support their remaining garrisons in Naples. However, this peace sowed discord within the League, as Venice and Spain felt excluded from the negotiations and objected to some of the concessions granted to France. The resulting tensions undermined the League's unity, weakening the coalition against French aggression.

The Siege of Novara marked the final major episode of Charles VIII's Italian campaign. While the French initially advanced with remarkable speed and success, the campaign ultimately collapsed under the combined resistance of Italian states and their foreign allies. For Louis d'Orleans, the failure at Novara highlighted the limits of French ambitions in Milan, though his desire for revenge foreshadowed his later campaigns as King Louis XII. For Ludovico Sforza, the siege was a short-term success, but his reliance on shifting alliances and his growing mistrust of the League would lead to further instability in Milan.

The siege also underscored the fragility of the Italian states and their vulnerability to foreign powers. Although Novara was reclaimed, the protracted conflict and devastation left a lasting impact, paving the way for continued invasions and political turmoil during the Italian Wars.

The Siege of Atella, which took place in the summer of 1496, marked the final chapter of the First Italian War and the decisive expulsion of French forces from southern Italy. Led by the brilliant Castilian general Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, whose strategic prowess earned him the title El Gran Capitan, the siege showcased a masterclass in combined arms tactics and coalition warfare. It ended in a resounding victory for the League of Venice, cementing the restoration of Ferdinand II of Naples to his throne.

By mid-1496, French forces in southern Italy, already in retreat after setbacks at battles such as Seminara and the fall of Castel Nuovo, were concentrated in the fortress town of Atella, where the French commander Gilbert, Count of Montpensier, had established his headquarters. Montpensier's position was increasingly dire, as the French garrison was isolated, and Ferdinand II's Neapolitan forces were gradually reclaiming the kingdom with support from their allies in the League of Venice.

Ferdinand II, emboldened by victories and hoping to conclude the campaign, pursued Montpensier to Atella. However, Ferdinand recognized the need for reinforcements and sought the aid of Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, who was then engaged in pacifying French-controlled Calabria. Cordoba, renowned for his success in guerrilla tactics and innovative battlefield strategies, agreed to join Ferdinand, but only after securing his rear in Calabria to prevent French interference from the south.

With a carefully selected force of 400 cavalry and 1,000 infantry, Cordoba marched to Atella. His reputation alone caused several French-aligned positions to surrender en route. By the time he reached the city, after 17 days of marching, his numbers had been bolstered by 500 additional troops from Spain, and he joined forces with Ferdinand, Cesare Borgia of the Papal States, and Francesco II Gonzaga of Venice, who relinquished overall command to Cordoba.

Upon arriving at Atella, Cordoba conducted a meticulous evaluation of the city's defenses. His reconnaissance revealed a critical weak point: a group of mills outside the city walls that provided Atella with its water and food supply. Recognizing their strategic importance, Cordoba devised a plan to capture the mills, thereby cutting off the city's lifeline.

The French commander, Montpensier, anticipated the move and stationed a detachment of Swiss pikemen and Gascon archers to defend the mills. On 1 July 1496, Cordoba launched an assault, deploying rodeleros (Spanish sword-and-shield infantry) supported by jinetes (light cavalry). The clash was brief but decisive. Demoralized by their precarious situation, the French defenders were swiftly overrun and fell back toward the city. Cordoba's light cavalry intercepted their retreat in a pincer movement, inflicting heavy casualties. The French garrison attempted to counterattack with their formidable gendarmes (heavy cavalry), but Cordoba regrouped his forces and repelled the assault. The French were forced to retreat back to Atella, having failed to dislodge the besiegers.

With Atella increasingly isolated, Cordoba shifted focus to consolidating the League's control over the surrounding region. He captured the nearby towns of Ripacandida and Venosa, further tightening the noose around the French stronghold. Montpensier, realizing reinforcements from France were unlikely to arrive, agreed to terms, vowing to surrender the city if help did not come within 30 days.

No relief force arrived. By August 1496, Montpensier and the starving French garrison capitulated, handing Atella over to the League of Venice. The surrender marked the complete collapse of French power in southern Italy. Montpensier, already in poor health, fell gravely ill during the retreat to France and died shortly afterward.

The Siege of Atella was a resounding triumph for the League of Venice and solidified Ferdinand II's restoration to the Neapolitan throne. For Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, the victory at Atella enhanced his reputation as one of the era's most gifted military commanders. His innovative tactics and adaptability, particularly his effective use of combined arms and light cavalry, would later form the foundation of the Spanish tercios, a military system that dominated European battlefields for over a century.

For Charles VIII and France, the loss at Atella marked the definitive end of the First Italian War. Charles's dreams of establishing a foothold in Italy, let alone his grander ambitions of launching a crusade against the Ottomans, were in ruins. The costly campaign left France deeply in debt and politically weakened, and Charles himself would die in 1498, leaving behind a precarious legacy.

The broader consequences of the war were felt across Italy. Although the League of Venice had successfully expelled the French, the conflict exposed the peninsula's vulnerability to foreign powers. The immense wealth of Italy, combined with its fragmented political landscape, made it an irresistible prize for European monarchs. The siege of Atella closed the First Italian War, but it was only the opening act in the prolonged and destructive Italian Wars, which would engulf the peninsula for decades to come.

The Siege of Ostia in 1497 was a significant episode in the aftermath of the First Italian War, highlighting the lingering tensions between France and its former allies after King Charles VIII's retreat from Naples. The fort at Ostia, a key coastal stronghold near Rome, became the focal point of a standoff between Pope Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia) and the French, who had refused to relinquish their hold on the fortress despite their withdrawal from southern Italy. The siege, conducted by a Spanish-Papal coalition under the command of Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, demonstrated the continued dominance of the League of Venice and further solidified Spain's growing influence in Italy.

In 1494, Charles VIII of France had marched through Italy to press his claim to the Kingdom of Naples, occupying key territories, including Naples itself, before retreating north in 1495. As part of this campaign, the French requested safe passage through Rome from Pope Alexander VI, who reluctantly granted it under significant pressure. During this time, the French garrisoned the fort at Ostia, a critical strategic position controlling access to the Tiber River and, by extension, the city of Rome. When Charles VIII abandoned his Italian campaign, his forces retained control of Ostia, defying Papal demands to vacate the fortress.

Pope Alexander VI, eager to restore Papal authority over Ostia, sought military assistance from the Spanish crown, which had become a leading power in the League of Venice. Spain's military reputation had been greatly enhanced by the successes of Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba in southern Italy during the First Italian War. Responding to the Pope's request, Ferdinand II of Aragon dispatched Fernandez de Cordoba, who marched north from Naples to confront the French garrison at Ostia.

By the time Fernandez de Cordoba arrived in the region, the French garrison at Ostia had fortified its position, expecting resistance. The Spanish commander, renowned for his tactical acumen, approached the siege methodically. His forces, composed of seasoned Spanish infantry and cavalry, worked closely with Papal troops to encircle the fortress and cut off its supply lines. The defenders, isolated and without hope of reinforcements from France, soon found themselves in a desperate position.

The Spanish and Papal forces employed a combination of artillery bombardment and infantry assaults to weaken the fort's defenses. Fernandez de Cordoba's experience in siege warfare, honed during the campaigns in Naples, proved decisive. After weeks of sustained pressure, the French garrison, suffering from starvation and low morale, capitulated. The fortress was surrendered to the Spanish and Papal coalition, restoring it to Papal control.

The fall of Ostia marked the end of French control over any remaining territories in central Italy. For Pope Alexander VI, the successful siege was a crucial victory that reaffirmed his authority over the Papal States and the surrounding region. The event also strengthened the alliance between the Papacy and Spain, which would play a key role in future Italian conflicts.

For Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, the siege of Ostia was another demonstration of his military skill and reinforced his growing reputation as one of the most capable commanders of the era. It solidified his position as Spain's leading general in Italy and earned him further acclaim as El Gran Capitan.

The French defeat at Ostia underscored the collapse of Charles VIII's Italian ambitions and highlighted the growing inability of France to maintain a foothold on the peninsula in the face of the unified opposition of the League of Venice. Although France's immediate influence in Italy had waned, the rivalries and conflicts ignited by Charles VIII's campaign would continue to shape the Italian Wars for decades, as other powers sought to exploit Italy's wealth and fragmented political landscape.